PASSION FOR POPULATION, HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT

No place to land: Loss of natural habitats threatens migratory birds globally

2011-05-16T05:12:00.001-07:00

On their epic journeys, often spanning thousands of kilometres, migratory birds cross many borders, linking different countries as well as ecosystems.

The annual migration of an estimated 50 billion birds representing around 19 per cent of the world's 10,000 bird species is one of nature's great natural wonders. Yet each year, more and more of the natural habitats migratory birds need to complete their journeys either diminish or disappear completely.

The theme for World Migratory Bird Day 2011, celebrated around the world on 14-15 May, was ' Land use changes from a bird’s-eye view ' and it highlights the negative effects human activities are having on migratory birds, their habitats and the planet’s natural environment. The loss, fragmentation and degradation of natural bird habitats is occurring globally and is mainly caused by the pressures resulting from a growing human population, rapid urbanization and unsustainable human use of natural areas.

Beautiful Bird

“Although migratory birds face many serious threats, the way humans use the land around them has by far the greatest negative effect. Unsustainable human land use, whether through deforestation, intensive agriculture, biofuel production, land reclamation, urbanization and mining directly removes or damages the habitats of migratory birds, affecting their populations on a global scale”, said Bert Lenten, Deputy Executive Secretary of the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) and initiator of the World Migratory Bird Day campaign.

World Migratory Bird Day was organized by the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) and the African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird Agreement (AEWA) - two intergovernmental wildlife treaties administered by the UN Environment Programme (UNEP). BirdLife International, Wetlands International and the Secretariat of the Partnership for the East Asian – Australasian Flyway (EAAFP) are also main partners of the global campaign.

“As the two intergovernmental treaties dedicated to the conservation of migratory animals, including migratory birds at global and flyway scale, the Convention on Migratory Species and the African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird Agreement have launched World Migratory Bird Day to make people aware of the threats migratory birds face along their migration routes”, said Bert Lenten.

CMS and AEWA bring together governments and other stakeholders to coordinate and further develop global flyways policy, to ensure that all flyways in the world benefit from some kind of coordination mechanism that promotes cooperation at ground level among the countries involved. This includes working towards establishing a viable network of sites which can be used by migratory birds to breed, rest and refuel during their migration.

Dr. Marco Lambertini, BirdLife International’s Chief Executive said: ‘Land-use change poses an immediate and increasing threat to the world’s migratory birds. Habitats vital to these species on their incredible journeys are being destroyed or degraded at an alarming rate and the bird’s-eye view is becoming bleaker. The BirdLife Partnership, with over 110 conservation organizations along the world’s flyways, is working across borders to help stem this tide and achieve the effective joined-up conservation needed to make a difference for these inspiring birds.’

Initiated in 2006, World Migratory Bird Day is an annual campaign backed by the United Nations and is devoted to celebrating migratory birds and promoting their conservation worldwide.

Events for WMBD 2011 in over 50 countries included bird festivals, education programmes, presentations, film screenings and birdwatching trips, run by hundreds of volunteers, dedicated groups and organizations around the world.

Edutainment Strategy in Conservation of Environment and Agriculture Modernization

2010-04-02T01:26:00.000-07:00

Considering the theories of emotional response which maintain that emotional messages in drama, music and humor in edutainment approaches to communication are more readily accepted by audience members and more likely lead to behavior change than messages with low emotional content, it is reasonable to believe that use of edutainment in promoting conservation of environment and modernization of agriculture is very vital.

Local people in rural areas come into contact with natural resources so often due to the nature of their daily chores. It would be paramount therefore to target them with edutainment approaches in conserving environment and modernization of Agriculture since they might not afford to buy news papers or and radio sets. Channels such as live theater performances and radio dramas which employ folk theater, puppetry, story telling, songs, music, mimes and folk dances would are paramount in this venture. I have seen this practically happen in several parts of Uganda and Rwanda. See the photos above showing local people in Rukungiri district of Uganda performing to the audience in an agriculture sensitization concert.

Several scholars including Barman (1998), Singhal and Rogers (1999) and Tufte (2005) have written much on this subject proving that the use of edutainment is vital in educating local people on various issues.

Handwashing Could Wash Away Diseases

2008-10-15T02:55:00.000-07:00

Every 15th October the World marks Global Handwashing Day, in an effort to mobilize and motivate millions around the world to wash their hands with soap.

Handwashing with soap is one of the most effective and inexpensive ways to prevent diarrheal disease and pneumonia, which together are responsible for approximately 3.5 million child deaths every year.

Children are highly susceptible to the diseases caused by a lack of effective sanitation and poor hygiene. More than 5,000 children under the age of five die every day as a result of diarrheal diseases, caused in part by unsafe water, lack of access to basic sanitation facilities and poor hygiene.

By washing hands with soap, families and communities can help reduce child morbidity rates from diarrheal diseases by almost 50 per cent.

To achieve this reduction, and for large scale, community-sensitive, and sustainable change to occur, partnerships with national and local governments, international organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), religious and community leaders, schools and the private sector are essential.

After learning about improved hygiene behaviour in schools, children can act as agents of change by taking these messages home to their families and communities.

Handwashing with soap, particularly after using the toilet and before eating, could significantly impact health, survival, child mortality, and help reduce poverty.

Climate Change and Increasing population threatening Uganda's Animals

2008-09-26T06:54:00.000-07:00

Authorities in Uganda are warning that increased population in the country coupled with climate change are greatly reducing on the number of wild animals in the country.

Jeconiuos Musingwire, the Western region focal person for the national environmental watchdog- NEMA says that more and more habitats for wild animals are being encroached on by local people who turn them into settlements. He also says that climate change is greatly turning habitants for such animals into uninhabitable.

He warns that in future such animals could have no place to stay if stringent measures are not taken now to control increasing population and harsh climate changes. I took these pictures in Lake Mburo national park in Uganda.

Waste Management still poor

2008-09-26T06:43:00.001-07:00

Management of wastes especially those generated from cities and towns in Africa remains a big problem. This photo is a clear example of what is happening in some parts of Africa. I took these photos in Rubindi town in Mbarara district, Uganda.

2007-12-26T08:03:00.000-08:00

HIV/AIDS Ravaging Environment

Fredrick Mugira 14/11/07
Health and environment experts are warning of a devastating impact of HIV/AIDS on environment and subsequent failure to attain sustainable development in most countries affected by this pandemic.

Participants who attended the East Africa regional conference on Population, Health, and Environment heard on 13/11/07 that HIV/AIDS could in future bring environmental conservation initiatives to standstill unless something is done now to address this.

Benjamin Mutebi Lutimba, an official from the Infectious Diseases Institute in Kampala Uganda told field practitioners, policymakers, researchers, journalists, community leaders and advocates from Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda who attended HIV/AIDS and Environment session that labor for environmental management is being lost because of AIDS. He was presenting the research findings he has just got from a study he carried out on the impact of HIV/AIDS on environmental. His research studied 50 persons living with HIV/AIDS in Kampala, the capital city of Uganda.

The research found that “as people are lost to HIV/AIDS, the environment would tend to be poorly maintained,” Lutimba revealed. He continued to reveal that 10 percent of the 50 persons studied contended that, “ as environmentalists die, this means that there would be no one to advocate for environmental protection laws.”

"35 percent said remittances from environmental activities decline or even totally cease to exist, reason being that if people are infected with HIV then there would be no labor for them to say plant more trees, advocate for forest reserves and the rest of it,” Lutimba disclosed. He also stressed that persons who are found with HIV/AIDS tend to lose hope in future and look at themselves as if they are going to die the next day. This, he said makes them not to think about what environment is going to be in future.

Perhaps what is most stunning, according to Daulos Mauambeta, the head of the Wildlife and Environment Society in Malawi is that as AIDS continues to kill more and more people, there is increased demand for coffins. Most coffins are made of wood. This would mean increased cutting of trees to make these coffins.

Mauambeta disclose this while addressing the same participants at this conference.

“But also we have got issue of firewood, during funeral, when somebody is dead in my country you have to have wood from the day that particular person has died to prepare food for those people that are coming to be with you up to the day when the dead body is buried, it can be about three days, that process can consume a lot of fire wood,” contended Mauambeta.

He said that in some countries, forestlands were being converted into graveyards. “In Zimbabwe within a single day you can have 16 to 15 graves being dug and people being buried on everyday basis, even in Malawi we have got that particular scenario,” Mauambeta continue to revealed. He stressed that environment on such pieces of land is being destroyed and the land is converted into graveyards. Mauambeta also stressed that in some cases when parents die, they live land to orphans who have got no experience in managing it.

Mauambeta suggested that in a move to mitigate this, there is need for alternatives. He called for the use of bamboo instead of timber coffins. For firewood, he says there is need for use of solar energy to prepare food during funerals among others.
ENDS

2007-12-26T02:09:00.001-08:00

DEATH AT PETROL STATIONS
By Mugira Fredrick

She smiles as a minibus approaches towards her. Shouting in Kinyankole language, “aha aha sebo,” translated to mean here here sir, she directs the minibus’ driver towards a place where she can easily refuel it.

The girl whose name I came to discovered as being Lillian Kyomuhendo does this for a living.

Kyomuhendo arrives at her workstation at Caltex Petrol Station in Mbarara town at eight in the morning daily dressed in a blue skirt and green blouse and leaves at 6 pm in the evening.

She is not the only one. Kyomuhendo is part of about 800 females in the south-western region who are at risk of dying from several diseases as a result of exposure to harmful leaded fuel following the nature of their work as petrol station attendants.

An official with the Agency that oversees environment in Uganda-NEMA Jeconeous Musingwire says there are about 200 petrol stations, which are in operation in the south-western districts of Mbarara, Bushenyi, Ibanda, Ntungamo, Kabale, Isingiro, Kisoro and Rukungiri.

“At least 4 pump attendants on each of these petrol stations are females,” says Musingwire who is also the focal person for NEMA in charge of the south-western region.

“Because of the nature of the way females dress, such as the mini skirts, they are more likely to absorb through their skin petrol especially the leaded one which dangerous to their health,” Musingwire continues to elaborate.

According to the Uganda National Bureau of Statistics (UNBS), lead is an addictive that is added to petrol during the process of refining to boost the engine performance and to prevent possibilities of engine knocking.
Most countries in the Eastern Africa sub region including Uganda still use only leaded gasoline according to the UN environment watchdog UNEP.

Environmental health scientists grade lead under the persistent waste substances which are toxic when inhaled or absorbed.

The Deputy Director of the Institute of Public Health at Makerere University Dr. William Bazayo says people who work as pump attendants at petrol stations inhale gases and fumes of petrol containing lead through their bodies and at times swallow it directly when they are eating some bites at their duty areas.

Dr. Bazayo sides with Musingwire on the issues of who faces a greater risk of exposure to lead. He insists females who work at these stations have a greater chance of exposure to lead than males because at least a third of their bodies are uncovered.

Dr. Bazayo, who is a specialist in Occupational and Environmental Health, warns that the more lead exposed to, the more risk of suffering from the dangers it poises.

“Such people face a risk of suffering from the loss of memory as a result inhaling lead,” says Dr. Bazayo.

He reveals further that lead also causes brain cancer, lung cancer and skin cancer among several others diseases. He says such diseases were on increase in the country.

“There are several problems for females who work at petrol stations such as miscarriages and several others have not been documented,” says Dr. Bazayo.

Dr. Bazayo calls for more efforts to protect such workers from exposure to lead.

Section 39 of chapter 4 of the Uganda Constitution (1995) stipulates that every Ugandan has a right to a clean and healthy environment. However, with increased unemployment in the country, this can never be respected.

Desperate unemployed people take on any job irrespective of the occupational hazards. They see such jobs as a liberator.

Kyomuhendo says she was forced to take on this job of pump attendant so as to earn a living. She is a senor 3 graduate.

A girl I found doing a similar job at Shell Ankole in the centre of Mbarara town, Kiconco Asiimwe told me she has no problem with her job as long as she earns some money. She is a senior 4 graduate.

However, what is more worrying still is the salary they earn at the end of the month. Just 40,000 to 80,000 shillings depending on the time they spend on these petrol stations. The more time spent on these stations working, the more money earned. Likewise the more time spent of these stations working, the more lead inhaled.

A manager at one of the petrol stations in Mbarara who was hesitant to reveal his names says the female pump attendants approach them searching for jobs like any other job seekers

He however says females are preferred because they attract customers and are sometimes trustable unlike makes whom he said are, “rough.”

“We help these girls to earn a living otherwise they would be in the villages doing nothing,” insisted the brown looking man clad in a yellow shirt and brown pairs of trousers , similar to what other staffs at the petrol stations were dressed in.

Asked about the sell of leaded fuel, the hospitable manager revealed that they were cooperating with government in ending the sell of this fuel. However he stressed that most of their customers still use leaded fuel because their vehicles still use old fashion engines.

World Bank and UNEP recommend that the global use of leaded fuel be phased out completely from petrol due to its adverse health effects on human beings.
In Uganda the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development instituted a national task force to ensure leaded fuel is phased out by 2006 however some petrol stations in the country still sell this harmful fuel.

With persistent poverty in the country, such harmful fuel is bound to continue on the markets. Not so many people in the country have enough funds to buy vehicles of the latest models which use unleaded fuel.

Musingwire says that what should be done now is the protection of those who are easily exposes to this harmful fuel.

“Every petrol station owner should ensure that his workers especially the pump attendants wear protective gears such as overall,” says Musingwire. He also suggests that pump attendants should always work not more than 8 hours at petrol stations as a move intended to minimise their exposure to leaded fuel.

There is need for concerted efforts from government, petrol station owners and civil society partners in urgently phasing out of the use of leaded gasoline as move intended to secure the unsuspecting people who get exposed to it and later suffer from dangerous diseases.

ENDS

2007-12-26T02:08:00.000-08:00

THE CONCEPT OF ENVIRONMENT AS A COMMON
Importance of 3 environmental commons in Uganda.
Mugira Fredrick

“It was a community which resulted from the fact that those things which were common to all belonged no more to one other to the others, and hence no one could prevent another from taking these common things that portion which he judged necessary in order to subsurve his wants from.”
Geerv. Connecticut, 161 U.S, 519 (1896).

The central focus of this essay is on discussing what the concept of environment, as a commons is all about and analyzing the economic importance of three environmental commons in my country Uganda.

Commons means things common to all or rather a property that is for the public and no individual can come up to demand the ownership.
Wipikedia encyclopedia[1], defines the word “commons” to mean, “any sets of resources that a community recognizes as being accessible to any member of the community.”
This draws attention to the fact that any member of the community has a right to use of the commons.
Wikipedia Encyclopedia identifies some of the examples of commons as “land and rivers while Chiras (2001), Kraus (2000), Mckinney and Schoch (2003) and Narayan et al (2000) identify some other commons as atmosphere, the oceans, ozone layer and pasture, forests, woodlands, lakes, rivers and common grazing lands.

Therefore, environment as a commons would mean that environment is a common resource shared by all. In other words, no human being on earth owns environment. It is for all human beings and its mismanagement affects the whole system and not that particular place only.

The environment in this case becomes a common property resource, which Pearce and Tuner (1990:250) identify as that resource “owned by some defined group of people, a community, a nation.” It is important to note that as Pearce and Tuner (1990:250) write, “there is open access” to the resource and people or rather residents of that particular place are “permitted to make whatever use they wish of the resource.”

(Bailley) argues that environmental commons are, “those things extra patrimoiium (incapable of being possessed) and thus available and necessary to all organisms. These fundamental resources by their dynamic nature include water, air and biological and genetic diversity.” This brings to the attention the fact that environmental commons mean the natural resources that are common to all. Those that are owned collectively and never privately. Their access is free to all member of that particular area or village or country.

There is no restriction to environment, all human beings have free access to it. It is a shared resource among the human beings and as O’riordan (1997:347) notes, “membership is just because ‘human beings’ belong to the ‘world’.

As O’riordan (1997:17) argues that, “in the commons, people recognize their dependency on each other and the earth that supports them.” This calls for collective responsibility over the commons.

However it is important to note that following lack of specified ownership chances of over exploitation and mismanagement or rather what is sometimes termed as tragedy of commons are high. Chiras (2001:246) notes that, “the logic that compels people to abuse communal holdings has been with humankind as long as common property has.”
Chiras (2001), give an example of exploited and mismanaged common as the overgrazed communal property of the Sahel. This brings to the attention of the fact that the view of environment as a common could be leading to more of its destruction than mismanagement. This is due to lack of private ownership.

There are several environmental commons in my country Uganda. Some of these include rivers, lakes, National Parks, range lands and forests. However, for the purposes of the essay, I have selected to concentrate on National Parks, forests and lakes. The remaining parts of this essay will analyze the economic importance of these three environmental commons.

National Parks:
A National park, according to Wikipedia Encyclopedia is “a resource of land, usually owned by a national government, protected from most human development and pollution.” In such a reserved land, there are wild animals, plants, birds, unusual geological features to mention but a few.

Most of the National Parks in Uganda are mostly situated in western parts of the country. They include Bwindi impenetrable forest, Queen Elizabeth, Mt. Rwenzori, Mt. Elgon, Murchison falls, Lake Mburo, Kidepo valley, and Kibale National Parks.

One of the economic importances of National Parks in the country is the provision of the employment. From park rangers to tour guides and wardens, all these are employed by the National Parks to give services there. Through this, the people employed earn a living through salaries and wages they are paid. It is important to note that inside these parks, there are also several hotels and lodges all of which employ several people as service providers there.

Secondly, National Parks attract tourists to the country who bring with them foreign exchange. Several tourists have been flocking into Uganda mostly from developed countries of US, Britain and Sweden to tour the National Parks. When these tourists come to Uganda, they pay money to the Parks before they visit them. They also spend on things like food and accommodation, all of which help the nation to get foreign exchange.
Tourists also pay for activities they do in these parks such as sport hunting which is going on in Lake Mburo National Park and mountain climbing in Mr. Rwenzori National Park.
It is important to note here that National Parks in Uganda do not only earn to the nation foreign exchange but also some Ugandans visit them and they end up paying some fee.

National Parks are also a major source of revenue to government especially after taxation. Annually parks are taxed by the government and this money goes directly to the development of the nation. As NEMA (2001:28) notes, the country earns “approximately UShs 2.7 billion annually,” from tourism. Some parks also share their revenues directly with the neighboring communities, the revenue they earn. They usually give about 20 percent of the money collected as park entrance fee to the communities surrounding the park as a move intended to share with them revenues collected. This also helps in the development of these communities.

More still, hides skins, horns, meat and all those rare things from the parks help the parks and the nation at large to earn money when they are sold. Some restaurants in the country have specialized in selling meat of wild animals while some shops also sell commodities delivered from the park. All this means that at least money is earned by the park managers when they sell these items to those who deal in them.

National parks are also used as ranches sometimes. This is going on in Lake Mburo National Park especially during the dry seasons. This helps farmers in raising their livestock, which they depend on in from of milk, meat, and revenue after selling them.

Forests:-
MFPED (2003:113) notes that, “forests and woodlands cover 24 percent of the total land area in Uganda.” This draws attention to the fact that forests and woodlands in Uganda play a big role in the country. NEMA (2001:27) discloses that, “currently Uganda has about 49,500km2 of forests consisting of tropical high forests and savanna woodland (99%) and plantation (1%).”

Most of the natural forests in the country have for the past few years been changed from gazetted forests reserves to National Parks such as those in Bwindi, Rwenzori and Mugahinga among others.

According to NEMA (2001:27), “more than 50% of the forests and woodlands in Uganda lie outside protected areas with no legal or institution framework for their management.” In other words, there is free access to them as a commons should be. Some of the national forests in Uganda include Imaramagambo, Karinju, and Mabira to mention but a few.

One of the economic importances of forests in Uganda is provision of employment. NEMA (2001:28) notes that, “the forest sector creates significant employment, probably the equivalent of nearly one million jobs.” Such jobs are occupied by people who do lumbering, who look after the forests, people engaged in management of nursery beds, and seedlings without forgetting those who burn trees to make charcoal.
This helps those people to earn income in form of salaries and wages they get from these businesses.

Secondly, forests in Uganda are a source of revenue to the government. NEMA (2001:28) observes that, “the current annual turnover of business in forestry is about UShs 356 billion, with a further estimated annual value of UShs 112 billion attributed to environmental services.” Government earns revenue from the forests after selling of products from them such as timbers and logs. It is important to note that such revenue help in the development of the nation.

Thirdly forests are a source of raw materials for construction and furniture making. Such products when sold, they help the country or community to earn money. Such products too help local people to construct shelters, which are necessary for one to live a health life. One can never be economically well off without a health life.

Forests also are a source of energy in the country. According to NEMA (2001:28), “90% of national energy” comes from “wood fuels”. Such energy is in form of firewoods and charcoal, all of which help people to cook their food, light and do other activities.
It is important to note that wood energy is cheap. However, it is greatly leading to deforestation of forests in the country.

More still, forests in Uganda are a major source of medicinal plants. Such medicine is used most in rural areas and even in urban areas of Uganda to heal several diseases of the people such as malaria, stomach problems to mention but a few. Most people earn a living from selling herbs collected from these forests, which are used to make herbal medicine.

Forests in the country are a host of several National Parks which attract tourists. NEMA (2001:28) notes that, “much tourism in Uganda is based on forests, woodlands and their constituent wild and natural beauty.” Tourists bring into the country foreign exchange
As NEMA (2001:27) notes, “forests in Uganda such as “Mgahinga, Bwindi, Rwenzori, Semuliki, Kibale and Mt. Elgon were changed from gazetted forests reserves to National Parks.” This draws attention to the fact that forests are a major host of National parks. It is important to note that some forests themselves attract tourists and scientists who bring into the country foreign exchange.

I cannot forget to mention that forests in Uganda are a source of foods of different types for the people. Some people do collect such foods from forests and sell them into markets hence earning a lot of income. Such foods include mostly fruits and edible wildlife such as rabbits and wild pigs among others.

Lastly, forests are a source of craft materials which have helped the craft industry to flourish in the country. Such crafts materials include those used to make items like baskets, traditional hats, mats among others. All these are a source of revenue to the people engaged in this business.

Lakes:
Major lakes of Uganda include Victoria, Albert, George, Edward, Kyoga and Kwania.
NEMA (2001:50) notes that, “open water bodies constitute 15% of the area of Uganda (36, 280km2)”

One of the economic importances of lakes in Uganda includes provision of water for irrigation, a thing that helps in the production of crops such as rice.
NEMA (2001:55) reveals that, “currently it is estimated that about 207 million m3 of water is used annually for irrigation.” With this certainly there has been increased agricultural production due to irrigation of the crops which would otherwise fail to grow well due to lack of enough water. Increased agricultural production means increased revenue to the farmers and the government after taxations and export

Secondly, lakes in Uganda are a source of fish. Fish in Uganda is consumed locally and also exported to foreign countries. This helps the people engaged in this business to earn income while on the side of the government; a lot of revenue is attained as fish is exported to foreign countries.

Lakes also provide employment opportunities to several people in the country. From fishermen, to fishmongers, Lake Managers and specialists, all these earn salaries and wages from the activities they operate on and around lakes.
With increased levels of un-employment in Uganda, Lakes are seen as a rescue for people who are brave enough to carry out activities on the waters.

It is important to note that like National Parks and Forests, lakes attract tourists. Lakes in Uganda such as Victoria, Kyoga and Albert are major tourist attractors. When these tourists arrive in the country, they bring with them foreign exchange. They also spend on several other things while they are in the country, all of which leaves the government and local people who operate businesses targeting tourists with income for their well being and poverty eradication.

Lakes are also a source of water for both domestic and livestock use. NEMA (2001:54) notes that, “with the population almost doubling between 1991 and 2010 in both rural and urban areas, the demand for water will likewise at least double.” Lakes are always there to provide water to people. Most of the water supplied in towns originates from lakes such as Lake Victoria which supplies Kampala city.

Likewise, NEMA (2001:54) notes that, “water for livestock constitutes a significant form of water use especially in the semi and pastoral areas where surface water sources are scarce and long dry periods are common.” An example here include Lake Mburo which is always a source of water for livestock for pastoralists during dry seasons. Without water, people and livestock would not be there or rather would not live a better economic life.

Lakes are also a source of craft materials, which are used in production of several crafts, such crafts including mats, traditional huts, and baskets among others are a source of income to people engaged in this activity.

This essay has observed that environmental commons in Uganda contribute significantly to the livelihoods of the local people and also help the government much in different ways mostly in revenue raising. This therefore calls on the people and government to take responsibility in owning communally and looking after environmental commons rather than leaving them to no one since their access is free and unrestricted.

REFERENCES:-
Chivas.D.D (2001) Environmental Science Creating Sustainable Feature (6th Edition). London: Jonies and Bartlett Publishers.

Krus.C (2000) Import Tarrifs as environmental policy instruments Kruuer Academic Publishers.

Mckenney.M.L and Schoch.R.M (2003). Environment Science systems and solutions (Third Edition). London: Jonies and Bartlett Publishers.

Narayin.D, Chambers.R,Shah.M.K,Petesch.P (2000) Voices of the poor crying out for change New York: Oxford University Press.

National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), (2001) State of the environment report 2000/2001. Kampala. Uganda

National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), 1998. Caring for our Environment and a handbook for local leaders. Kampala: Industrial Graphics Systems Ltd.

O’riordan.T (1997) Environmental Science for Environmental Management. Singapore Longman Group Ltd

Pearce.D.W and Tuner.R.K (1990) Economics of Natural Resources and Environment. Great Britain: John Hopkins University.
[1] An online encyclopedia

2007-12-26T02:07:00.000-08:00

WOMEN IN NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Mugira Fredrick

This essay concentrates on assessing the importance of including women in natural resource management.
Women, the plural form of woman is used commonly to imply to adult female humans, while natural resources according to Wikipedia encyclopedia refer to, "naturally occurring substances that are considered valuable in their relatively unmodified form." Rodda (1977:72) notes that, “natural resources can be grouped under two categories; renewable and none renewable.” She continues to elaborate ibid that, “the renewable natural resources are mainly plants, and vegetables, animals and humans (while) the non renewable resources are those of water and land.” This draws attention to the fact that natural resources entail man and his surroundings.

Traditionally, women have been excluded from the management of these natural resources this is partly because females and males play different roles in the community.

There are roles that are seen as for males alone and those that are viewed at as belonging to females alone. As Narayan et al (2000:115) argue, “man (is seen) as the provider for the family and the woman taking care of the home.” This draws attention to the fact that society naturally distributes roles that fall under the brackets of production of goods and services, activities done at a community level, and decision making to different people depending on their gender identity or rather what Gregson et al (1997:53) cited in Hatfield ( 2003:3) call, “male or female.”

Women for example have been known traditionally to be engaged much in home chores such as cooking, caring for children and washing of clothes among others. Wilkins (2005:266) writes, “over all women are constituted in most passive roles,” and have not been effectively integrated into the management of the natural resources as Rodda (1997:76) argues that,
“to date, women have not really been perceived to be part of the natural environment conservation scene.”

Meanwhile the females, counterparts, the males are traditionally viewed at as playing several roles in the society such as being decision makers, breadwinners of the family and natural resources managers too.

However, there is need for change in the traditionally gender division of labour to include mostly the women in the management of natural resource.
As Rodda (1997:72) writes, “there is little dispute over the importance of women in managing natural resources, particularly in the development countries.”

Some of these importance include;
The need to have them participate practically in development process of their communities.
Following the failure of modernization and dependency development paradigms, alternative development paradigm which Pieterse (2002:74) notes that implies, “a definite theoretical break with main stream development,” is being employed to bring about an end to misery as a result of underdevelopment in the community.

This paradigm is pro - people and as Pieterse (2002:750) puts it, it is “participatory and people centered.” It gives a chance to everyone regardless of gender and age to participate in development process. With this paradigm, therefore women are seen as patterns of men in bringing about development at household, community and national levels.

This, certainly calls for involvement of women in all affairs including management of natural resources if a participatory and people centered development is to be achieved which could subsequently lead to a sustainable development based on the balanced use of natural resources. .

Secondly, due to the nature of their traditional roles, women come into contact with natural resources so often, this calls for their involvement in management and protection of these resources or else women could, ignorantly destroy these resources to the point of extinction. As Rodda (1997:47) notes, women have direct contact with natural resources , “as they collect essential items for their everyday needs…, (they are) collectors of fuel, food and fodders , water collectors and carries , consumers of industrial goods as producers , farmers and farm workers, as wage labors.” Buckingham (2003) drives this point home when she notes, that traditional roles of women as carers of home and family is extended to the resource which contribute to this. This resource is non other than the natural resource.

Rodda (1997:76) also argues that, “ because of the various roles women play in food processing , farming , agricultural management and family health, it is crucial that their understanding of environmental issues should be increased and their knowledge and skills taken into account in the conservation of natural resources.”

All this puts emphasis to the fact that women due to the nature of their work access natural resources very easily and always, so there is need to involve them in the management of these resources so that they can know the costs and benefits of the sustainable use of these natural resources.

Thirdly with increased poverty levels especially in the southern countries there is need to fight it from two sides as a move intended to eradicate it successfully.. As Narayan et al (2000:11) argue, “in several places, people stress that the poorer the household, the more likely it is that the women will be involved in some form of work,” which was not traditionally theirs.

Likewise Neft and Levine, (1997), Steevens (2000) cited in Wilkins (2005:262) argue that “ women are more likely than men to suffer from poverty, with their access restricted to critical education, health employment and political.” It is important to note that poverty is one of the major causes of natural resource degradation
This draws attention to the fact for the campaign to eradicate poverty to succeed,
women should be left to manage natural resources in their possession and put them to the uses so as to get incomes.

Fourthly, women in the world account for the highest percentage, therefore bringing them on board to be managers of natural resources would mean increased man power in this field. It is important to note that women who are the majority everywhere in the world and most especially in the developing countries constitute the rural poor majority who depend on non other than environment for their lives, so if these women were brought on board as natural resource managers, they would effectively do it more than men do after all men are the minority.

Fifthly, with increased killer diseases in the world and most especially the developing world, such as HIV/Aids, Malaria and Ebola, deaths of men heads of families have been rampant. In times when death takes way the man who has been fulfilling the duty of managing natural resources, if there is no substitute, then such resources could vanish. Therefore there is need to plan for the future early enough and involve both women in management of natural resources so that if their husbands succumb to death, the they (widows) manages the natural resources effectively to benefit the family.

More still women have a wide local knowledge on natural resource management therefore including them in natural resource management would help to tap on this knowledge. Take an example as Bakingham (2003:1) writes that, “ their social role as the main unpaid domestic workers in each household brings them closer to an awareness of environmental hazard whether it is by shopping for food …, preparing that food for safe eating, or caring for the health of their children.” This draws attention to the fact that women have a lot of knowledge on the natural resources and it can be cheaply tapped by engaging them in the management of these resources.

In addition, including women in natural resource management would be another way of empowering them economically among others. By making women managers of these resources, would be helping them to have a ‘say’ in the returns from them. This subsequently would lead to empowerment of women. The last 40 years have seen several movements spring up meant mostly to end inequalities and discrimination based and gender differences.

Movements like Gender Equity Empowerment Framework, Gender and Development, Movement towards recognizing Woman’s roles in Development (WID) have all led to changes in gender division of labor in Africa with mostly females being brought up to limelight to compete with males in several positions . Such movements have helped to address gender gaps at various levels and subsequently led to increased access of females to education, access to information and control of resources and benefits. Such movements would be rendered a failure if women are left out of management of natural resources because these resources are the foundation for everything , from money , to good health to ending poverty and happy life.

Another importance of including women in natural resource management is that women can easily be used as channels of communication for conservation of natural resources. As already noted in this essay, women are the majority and are knowledgeable about local natural resources. On top of these two factors, women also have several organizations that unite them. They meet regularly to share their concerns. Due to these factors, if women are include in the management of natural resources they can effectively help to pass on information concerning natural resource management from one person to another including their husbands and children. This would subsequently help to disseminate information concerning effective conservation of natural resources.

Lastly including women in natural resource management would help to make them feel the ownership of these resources. This means that they there is a chance that they would relate to these resources friendly and that their activities and impacts on the natural resources would be sustainable. This is important because as already noted in this essay, women have direct and repetitive contact with environment due to the nature of their traditional roles. This would also make them play positive roles towards sustainability of these resources because they would be seeing them as theirs.

On the other hand, including women in natural resource management could have negative effects on the society.
These could include distortion of the traditions and norms. Traditionally women have been kept out of natural resource management not for granted but because they concentrated on domestic spheres to offer family care services such as cooking , laundry and procreation. This means that if they take active roles in management of natural resources, they may give up some of their traditional roles hence no one may perform them. No wonder some women are now giving up their traditional roles of caring for children and leaving it to housemaids.

Secondly including women in natural resource management this would lead to competition for this role between men and women. Although sometimes competition is health, it may also come with problems such as do0mestic violence as a man tries to keep the wife from performing such roles.

Lastly this would also cause unemployment for men who have been performing these roles because there would be increased man power on the market and most especially the manpower that is much more knowledgeable than men.

References

Creedon, P.J. (1993). The challenges of re-visioning Gender Values. In P.J .Creedon (ed.) Women in Mass communication (2nd ed). (pp.-23). California : Sage Publications lnc.

Interviews I had with some residents of Kalangala between 24-26 March 2006 during a study tour for Postgraduate Environmental Journalism and Communication students of Makerere University 2005/6.

Narayan , N. Chambers , R. Shan , M. K. Petesch , P. (2000) .Voices of the Poor Crying Out of Change. Washington: Oxford press.

Pieterse, J.N.(2002). Development Theory Deconstructions /Reconstructions.
Skelton T, and Allen T (2005).Culture and Global change an introduction. London: Sage Publications

Wikipedia encyclopedia at www.wikipedia.com accessed on 1st April 2006.

Wilkins, K .G. (2005). Out of focus: Gender visibilities in development. In O. Hemer and T. Tufte (ed). Media and Global Change Rethinking Communication for Development (PP.261-270) . Buenos Aires: Nordicon

BODA BODA: Uganda’s youth liberator

2007-12-26T02:06:00.000-08:00

Mugira Fredrick

When he dropped out of school, Moses Mugyema’s future seemed bleak and irretrievable. But the 25 year old known to his fellow Boda Boda operators as Brown has distinguished himself as a self-made man with a host of stunning achievements to name.

Within 5 years, he has transformed himself from a just school dropout to a respectable citizen who owns an iron roofed house, a farm with 10 Ankole long horned cows and a video hall.

Mugyenyi is just one of over 100.000 youths in Uganda that are in this business of ridding commercial motorcycle Boda Bodas. These motorcycles which started about a decade ago as an innovation of bicycle Boda bodas carry passengers and sometimes goods.

With day by day increase in unemployment of youths in Uganda, youths, especially those unemployed see Boda Boda ridding as their only liberator to ending unemployment problem. The chairperson of the National Boda Boda Cyclists Cooperative savings and Credit Society (BOCOSACS), Masokoyi Abdu says: “Over 100,000 youths countrywide are in this business” of ridding Boda Boda commercial Motorcycles.

“When you enter this business with a plan, you can become rich” Masokoyi says. He says that most youths in the country who are in this business have been able to raise funds for helping them to “marry”, buy land, open up shops and “take their children to schools”.

Expressing himself in Luganda, Ismail Lutamanyira, 33, a boda boda cyclist in Kampala said, he makes between 10,000 shillings to 15,000 per day depending on the situation. He owns and operates his own Boda Boda and has been in this trade for 5 years. He is marries with two sons.

What is more interesting is that the business of ridding Boda Boda Motorcycles is not only acting as a savior for youths in Uganda to get jobs but also helping others to join politics.

BOCOSACS’ boss Masokoyi says “Nine Boda Boda cyclists are vowing to vie for various political seats in different parts of the country in the next National”.

“One of them wants to compete for the MP seat in Kampala city, another wants Masindi district chairmanship seat, while others wants to be councilors at different local council levels” Masokoyi stressed. He however could not mention their names for what he called security reasons.

Mid this year, a Boda Boda cyclist, Kushemererwa Laurence competed with 4 other contestants in the Mbarara Municipality MP by-elections. He managed to be the second to the winner John Kigyagi. Among others contestants Kushemerewa won was a lawyer with the NRM secretariat.

Coincidently Boda Boda’s are not only a savior to the riders, they help their fight poverty.

Ngulu, 28 operating form Makerere University Gate sate in Kampala says he pays 7,000 shillings to the motorcycle owner per day.

On the side of government, millions of shillings from the Boda Bodas inform of Road Licenses and Insurances. According to the Uganda revenue authority (URA), a motorcycle pays these taxes according to its engine capacity (C.C). 500 shillings is paid for each C.C. The most common Boda Boda cycles have 50 and 100 C.Cs. there are about 100.000 boda boda motorcycelks in the country which pay these taxes annually.
Boda Boda Motorcycles are also cheap which makes them an ideal transport means for the poor people. According to Ngulu most on most of the routes they charge 500 shillings of 1000 shillings.

They are also faster and usually not affected by the traffic jams. A student at Makerere University Okiror Steven says: “I use Boda Bodas every time I am going to campus for studies and back to the hostel in Bakuli”.

“They are convenient and can be found almost everywhere, unlike taxis”. Okiror continued to reveal.

However, critics of Boda Bodas especially environmentalists say though Boda Boda Motor cycles are saying the youths from unemployment b, they are killing them slowly. “Second had or order two-stroke Motorbikes are serious causes of air pollution”. Says World Bank Environmental economist Noreen berg. He says Motorcycle’s drivers who spend 10-15 hours on the streets are usually using their lungs to clean the air.

More Several Boda Boda drivers have also lost their lives in accidents.
According to the regional Traffic officer Kampala Extra, Gabriel Tibayungwa, in the year 2002, over 600 Motorcyclist died in road traffic accidents and too suffered from injuries.

Society in Uganda has also been accusing Boda Boda riders of being the leading defilers especially of the girl children to transport to schools everyday.

Boda Boda ridding , a profession that employs most youths , who would otherwise be in villages loitering and doing all sorts of insecurity acts there should not be taken as a mere job. Government and stakeholders need to put in more in this sector to attract more unemployed youths into it.

Africa Must Double Its Investment in Clean Water

2007-07-27T02:19:00.000-07:00

Mugira Fredrick.

It is budget time in most of countries in Africa now. Huge amounts of money, as usual are going to funding sectors including those of defense, agriculture and infrastructure development. As experience has shown, not much is likely to go to solving what has been described as a ‘global crisis.’

While speaking at a May 16 hearing of the House Foreign Affairs subcommittee on Africa, Donald Payne, the chairman of the sub-committee said that lack of clean water worldwide, especially in Africa, is a “global crisis.” True. This is something that should be addressed now.

“Lack of clean water,” as Payne put it, “claims the lives of 4,900 children everyday,” in Africa. How long shall this continue while African governments look on? Something must be done now. The campaign and support being devoted to putting to an end to crises such as that in Darfur region of Sudan, Eastern Chad and the rebel Lord Resistance Army affected region of Northern Uganda and southern Sudan must be extended to providing safe water to Africans too.

Whereas Africa, especially the Sub-Saharan Africa has a great potential for water provision, access to clean drinking water and water for productive purposes remains inadequate. Most of the countries receive rains throughout the year or two seasons a year. But what is disturbing is that according to statistics, only about 4 percent of rain water is used which leaves the rest to proceed to wetlands, rivers , lakes and sea without being put to fruitful use.

Must this water be wasted while problems as a result of shortage and lack of safe water continue to hit hard? No, something must be done. Cheap technologies should be devised to tap this rain water. For example in Uganda, the government is encouraging construction of rain water harvesting tanks. These are okay but might not be affordable o rural persons who are the majority that face the problem of lack of safe drinking water most. The government which collects taxes from the same persons who face lack of safe water should therefore come in to invest in helping them construct these tanks.

One of the initiatives could include helping these local people to access cheap plastic water tanks. Governments could buy these tanks, distribute them to every home and then people pay for them in installments or rather on a loan basis.

This might be seen as something usual. However neglecting it gives birth to something unusual. It is widely known that lack of clean water and sanitation leads to several diseases such as cholera , malaria, typhoid, yellow fever, river blindness, sleeping sickness, guinea worm, bilharzias, scabies to mention but a few. But what is amusing most governments in Africa have continued to allocate big amounts of their budget to strategies aimed at treating these diseases and not preventing them such as improving safe water access.

Just take an example of statistics by African Medical and Research Foundation – AMREF that “70 percent of East African Hospital visits are caused by contaminated water.” How much do the three East African governments spend on treating these people? What if such funds are invested in helping the local people access safe water? May be the percentage would reduce to 10 or none.

With the prevalence of such diseases still high in most African countries, it remains hard to believe that the UN Millennium Development Goal (MDG) that targets to reduce by half by 2015, the number of people without access to clean water will be achieved.

However, most African governments still dream of achieving this. These dreams therefore should lie mostly in doubling investments targeting people’s access to clean water. A priority should be given to cheap and appropriate technologies such as the use of rain water harvesting tanks which governments can buy and distribute to people. Emphasis should be put on educating and sensitizing communities and households on harvesting and storage of water from their roofs especially those who have modern roofs.

Extending piped water to many homes and subsidizing its costs to make it affordable to local people right from those living in mansions to those living in grass-thatched single rooms in slums is important too. More gravity flow water schemes should also be constructed too. Governments should also help local people in digging shallow wells where clean water can be collected.

It is also important that African governments cease relying on money from donors to help them provide safe water to their own local people. The tendency of “let’s wait for our teacher to help us find solutions” should cease.

It is true, agencies like the U.S Agency for International Development (USAID) which funded water supply activities and hygiene programmes worth 91.6 million dollars for the 2006-2007 fiscal year in more than 30 African countries should be commended. But African governments must not relegate their duty of providing safe water to their citizens to such agencies.

2007-07-27T02:16:00.000-07:00

CURRENT ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS IN UGANDA
1. Modification of physical environment by;
(i) Deforestation as in the case of Kalangala Islands and Mabira forest that is in pipeline.
(ii) Encroachment on wetlands. This is currently going on in Kampala city and several other towns as people try to construct residential houses. It is also in rural areas as farmers try to expand their farms.
(iii) Land fragmentation in places like Kabale as population increases.
(iv) Soil erosion especially in hilly areas of South Western Uganda. This is leading to silting of rivers such as River Rwizi and Kagera.
(v) Over exploitation of lake resources, as in the case of Lake Victoria, Albert and George where fishermen are fishing indiscriminately.
2. Human overpopulation. This is leading to diminishing habitants for other species as people expand their settlements and farms. It is leading to over exploitation of land and soil fertility exhaustion like in Buganda region. It is also leading to congestion in towns especially in slums which subsequently leads to diseases, such as cholera
3. Poor management of wastes in towns. This is leading to diseases such as
Cholera too.
4. Diseases such as HIV/AIDS and malaria that make people sick/ kill them.

HOW TO INCREASE AWARENESS
1. Sensitization. This can be done through media, political rallies, public debates, schools and others.
2. Through trainings such as those of environmental journalists, environment officers/scientists who can ably guide people to protect the environment.
3. Physical participation to be seen as role models.
CHALLENGES:-
• Lack of capital for sensitization such as buying air space on radio. Also like in the case of lack of enough money to pay reporters to investigate on environmental issues which is hard for private media companies.
• Lack of enough knowledge on environmental protection concepts. This is leading to lack of exposure to concepts in environmental systems among journalists, local leaders and some environmentalists too.
• An important issue therefore that should be addressed by managers and owners of media houses and government is the examination of factors and practices that drive journalists to report on others issues and neglect environment.
• Lack of cooperation from local people, with environmentalists and journalists. This is leading to continued degradation of environmental and also to scarcity of environmental stories on the side of journalists.

RECOMMENDATIONS
 There is need to raise on the number of reporters and journalists who are trained to specialize in covering the field of environment.

 There is also need to create simple environmental language that is accepted not only nationally but also internationally to help break the environmental jargon.

 Further more there is need for everyone involved in advocating for the environment say environmental officers, local leaders to become louder. More practical attention by the stakeholders in conservation of environment could see more people sensitized and well informed about the effects of their actions on environment

 Politicians should be realistic and not see their constituents in wrong and keep quite just because they fear that risking to attack them could mean loss of votes

 Media organizations too, should reorganize the problems associated with environmental degradation and come up with a policy of airing at least an environmental story per bulletin to effectively empower their audiences with knowledge to control this.

2006-08-18T00:12:00.000-07:00

Should we “sell” the issues of environment the way we sell soap?

Mugira Fredrick

Environment is a concept of external factors that act on system and determines its course and form of existence (Wikipenda Encyclopedia: 2005). It can be summarized as man and his surroundings which encompass ecological, economical, aesthetic and ethical concerns.

Social marketing is a process of influencing human behavior, using marketing principles as a move intended to benefit the community. It utilizes techniques drawn from commercial advertising and market research and the social sciences (Mody, 2003)

Communication is the act of transmitting information, ideas and attitudes from one person to another. While tackling this question, I will base myself on Osgood and Schram (1954) Model of Communication which describes communication as an interactive act. This model describes communication as a process of exchange of knowledge between the source and receiver and that it is interactive and has feedback. (Mcquail, 2003)

The act of selling soap belongs to commercial marketing which is aimed at mostly profits making while the act of selling environment issues belongs to social markets which aims at social benefits.

Should we sell issues of the environment the way we sell soap?
Yes, it is important that similar techniques be used to sell the two products though they belong to different segments in marketing because the two are essential to man. Man can not live without using soap to wash and bathe as move designed to help him keep sanitation and hygiene similarly he needs environment to be able to get food, income, oxygen and several others necessary for him to live.

Secondary, successful marketing of the soap alike that of environmental issues base on a good program design, careful implantation, sufficient documentation and systematic evaluation to access success and failures. It would be unfair to base on these techniques when marketing soap and neglect them when marketing issues of environment. This would mean that this the campaign to conserve environment might fail.

Thirdly, in both types of marketing, you offer to the audience something they value in return. In the case of soap, a consumer pays his money in return for better quality of soap. This also applies to selling issues of environment. In selling issues of environment, the marketer and in this case who might be an n Environmental Organization offers to the targeted audience benefits that are valued by the community in return for their conservation efforts. An example is a campaign against degradation of Wetlands. Encroachment on wetlands causes water shortage because the water catchment areas are destroyed. Therefore an environmental campaign that successfully convinces the community to restore the degraded wetlands rewards the local people there with increased water supply as a result of presence of wetlands.

More still marketing of soap in the same like marketing of issues of environment calls for identification of audience that is being targeted. In marketing soap, a marketer identifies his audience who are capable of buying product soap and goes ahead to entice them to buy it, likewise in marketing environment issues, the environmental organization selects target audiences stakeholders who are affected by the problem and goes ahead to work with them to finds solutions to the problem. He or she, “must know how the audience is connected to the problem, and their current experience and knowledge of problem” (Susan, 1999; 87). This justifies why if I feel when marketing the two products, similar techniques should be taken because they have a targeted audience.

Furthermore, marketing of both products necessitates planning for the competitor. In marketing soap, the marketer plans for how to win his competitors who also sell the same products. For example if one is marketing Geisha soap, he will plan for how to over compete other brands of soaps like imperial and Detal soaps , equally in marketing environment issues, an environmental Organization plans for not duplicating services which are being offered or had already been offered by other organizations. The NGO does so by offering services that are different or enhanced more than other social workers/ NGOs are offering.

Besides, in both types of marketing, messages consist of both information and persuasion. “Persuasive elements of message” while selling a product such as soap “incorporate tactics such as fear, sexiness, or humor to influence their customers” (Susan, 1999,92), similarly as Susan goes ahead to write , this can work effectively in selling environmental issues:
Surprisingly, many environmental Organizations provide only information and neglect to include persuasive arguments in their massages. Persuasive arguments can work for conservation causes. Environmental organizations may exploit public fear by emphasizing the negative effects of not heeding their messages. (ibid)
Therefore if marketing of soap and issues of environment use the same techniques of persuading and information, why not sell them alike.

In addition, when one is marketing soap, he /she aims at the influencing the targeted audience to take action. Such action means the buying of soap by the targeted audience, likewise, in marketing environment issues, Environmental Organizations, want the audience to take action. Here, the action is conserving environment or restoring what has been degraded. This suggests that it is possible to market the soap and issues of environment using the same techniques.

Marketing of both soap and environment issues incorporate a range of similar tactics and approaches knows as “market Mix’. This involves identifying the place where to sell your product soap or environmental issues, secondary the cost that would be paid by the people buying soap or conserving the environment, whether the audience is capable of affording it and lastly a product which in this case is soap or issues of environment. If the market mix in marketing these two is the same then it can be possible to market them in a similar way.

Lastly, media, the channel of communication used in selling the either soap or environment issues does not segregate between the two. Both soap marketer and environmental organizations use similar techniques while dealing with the media as a tool of publicity to inform and persuade the audience what they are offering. They both have to use a channel of communication that is received by the targeted audience. There is also the use of a language which the targeted audience is well conversant with. This also indicates that it is possible to market soap and environment issues using the same techniques. (Susan,1999)
On the other side, it can not be taken for wholesomely that Soap and Issues of environment can be can be sold in a similar ways because whereas in marketing soap , a marketer aims at selling his product which is soap, in selling environment issues , Environmental organizations , aim at changing the audiences knowledge , attitudes and behaviors.

Secondly, in selling of issues of environment, one focuses on biological problems, and the solutions lie with people who are audience, whereas in commercial marketing, there are no problems which one is aiming at combating but rather aims at selling off his product and incase the targeted audience refuses to buy the product, it will only affect the profits of the marketer but not the entire community that was targeted like it is incase of selling environment issues.

In marketing environment issues, one can be compelled to use punitive measures if need be for example if the audience does not take hid however, in marketing soap, this is not applicable.

More still, soap is tangible and the consumer can see what he is buying there and then however in selling environmental issues, the consumer does not immediately get a tangible product in return for services. It takes years to realize the benefits such as if the campaign is on planting trees, it may take years for trees to grow and give returns to the audience.

Lastly, it is easy to frequently package soap and brand it in new forms which can attract the buyers however this is difficult in selling environmental issues because the good being traded is not tangible.

In conclusion, like soap is essential to man, environment is essential too. This makes me to strongly believe that we should “sell” issues of environment the way we sell soap. It would be catastrophic if marketers concentrated on using the best techniques in marketing of sell soap and Environmental NGOs neglected the similar techniques in selling issues of environment. This would mean that the campaign to conserve environment would fail, which could subsequently lead to degradation of environment.
References

Leslie R (2003) Development Communication Campaign, in Bella Mody (ed) International and development communication. A 21st century Perspective, Sage publication, Inc London.

Mcquail D,(2003) Mcquail’s Mass communication Theory, 4th edition , Sage Publication London.

Susan J, 1999 Communication skills for conservation professionals. Island place New York.

www.en.wikipenda.org/wiki/environment (accessed on 31st October 2005)

2006-08-18T00:05:00.000-07:00

Major factors contributing to changes in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa

Mugira Fredrick

This essay discusses what I feel are six major factors that have contributed to changes in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa.

It is based on the activity profile, centered on the factor that females and males in a community have different traditional roles to play. Most of the examples and experiences used in this essay are dawned from Kalangala district[1] of Uganda. Kalangala district consist of 84 Islands. All these Islands are found in Lake Victoria. According to the latest Uganda population census, Kalangala district has a total population of 34,907 with 20,886 males and 14,021 females

Traditionally, females and males played different roles in the community. There are roles that were seen and are still seen as for males alone and those that are viewed at as belonging to females alone. As Narayan et al (2000:115) argue, “man (was seen) as the provider for the family and the woman taking care of the home.” This draws attention to the fact that society naturally distributed roles that fell under the brackets of production of goods and services , activities done at a community level, and decision making to different people depending on their gender identity or rather what Gregson et al (1997:53) cited in Hatfield ( 2003:3) call, “male or female.”

Women for example have been known traditionally to be engaged much in home chores such as cooking, caring for children and washing of clothes among others.
Wilkins (2005:266) writes, “over all women are constituted in most passive roles.” Meanwhile males are also traditionally viewed at as playing several roles in the society such as being decision makers and breadwinners of the family. However, as Narayan et al (2000:109) write, “women’s and men’s roles are going through major changes.” This draws attention to the fact that females and males are now playing roles in the society which were traditionally not theirs.
It is important to note that these changes in traditional gender division of labour have not only affected men and women but also youths and children.

As Narayan et al (2000:111) note, “…Women are stepping outside of their household responsibilities to earn a living and help bring food to the table.”
Narayan et al (2000:116) further argue that, “there are also cases of almost complete role reversal, with the men assuming the bulk of cooking, cleaning and looking after children.”

Several factors have led to these changes in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa and the world over .The remaining part of this essay discusses these factors.

The first factor is the application of Alternative Development Paradigm to bring sustainable development of communities especially those in the southern parts of the globe.
Following the failure of modernization and dependency development paradigms, alternative development paradigm which Pieterse (2002:74) notes that implys, “a definite theoretical break with main stream development”, has been employed to bring about an end to misery as a result of underdevelopment in the community.
This paradigm is pro - people and as Pieterse (2002:750) puts it, it is “participatory and people centered.” It gives a chance to everyone regardless of gender and age to participate in development process. With this paradigm, females are seen as patterns of males in bringing about development at household, community and national levels. Females and more especially women are no longer taken as Wilkins (2005:267) argues,
“ ...as individuals within a pluralist society, rather as members of a shared collective with the power to mobilize ,act and resist.”
This has subsequently led to a change in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa due to the fact that it emphasizes on the need for collective efforts in bring about development in communities. It overlooks gender differences.
This same development paradigm has led to establishment of several programs designed to benefit women and girls. This has subsequently led to their empowerment and they now see themselves as persons who can compete with females in any fields.
More still with this development paradigm, females are no longer seen as people supposed to engage in passive and un paying jobs. They have now joined their husbands to be breadwinners too. Side by side with their husbands, the females are now helping their husbands to raise families by doing roles that were traditionally meant for males. Now women are engaged in activities like petty trade, such as selling of fish which was noticed in Kalangala district. Children and women are now engaged in causal labor especially in agricultural sector. This was also witnessed in Kalangala district. Several other females are engaged in factory employment and service sector jobs such as the girls who are working as service providers in Kalangala beaches for example as waitresses. Most of these jobs were traditionally meant for males.

The second factor contributing to changes in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa is poverty.
Poverty needs to be fought from two sides as a move intended to eradicate it successfully. As Narayan et al (2000:11) argue, “in several places, people stress that the poorer the household, the more likely it is that the women will be involved in some form of work outside the household.” With poverty, females have given up their traditional roles and ventured into males’ roles to supplement their family’s income, likewise males have ventured in females’ jobs to earn a living a result of poverty and unemployment.
An example here can be the profession of nursing which was traditional seen as belonging to females, however, several males have now joined it to earn a living.
Narayan et al (2000:110) note that, “with increased economic hardships and rising male employments, poor women are working outside the home in large numbers to supplement, sometimes very substantially household budgets.”
In an interview with Jessica Nachanzi aged 40, a housewife I found at Nakatiba “dead” lagoon in Kalangala, she told me, she has resorted to burning charcoal from trees cut down by people clearing forests in Kalangala to pave way for BIDCO palm trees planting project. She attributed her shift to charcoal burning, a job seen traditionally to be belonging to men, to the fact that she has to look after her children, two of whom she had by her side during this interview. She stressed that her husband could not do this alone.
Another example is that of women who are operating shops at Nakatiba landing site in Kalangala district. Three of them I interviewed by names of Faridah, Namamutebi, and Allen stressed that their move to join this work which was traditionally seen as for men as is intended to help them supplement their husbands’ income. Likewise Neft and Levine, (1997), Steevens (2000) cited in Wilkins (2005:262) argue that “ women are more likely than men to suffer from poverty, with their access restricted to critical education , health employment and political.” This draws attention to the fact that some females have no alternative but to take on jobs, even if they are for men, so that they can earn a living and fight poverty affecting them which is hindering them from living a better life.
It is important to note that as women earn more money, they tend to play bigger roles in household decision-making, a role traditionally meant for males /husbands. Narayan et al (2000:111) drive this point home when they write that, “in Ghana, Malawi, Nigeria and Zambia, a positive link is found between women’s earning capacity and their role in household decision.”
Likewise, children who have money nowadays are taking on the role of decision makers in their families from their parents because they have money which and as the saying goes ‘money talks’.
Poverty therefore contributes to changes in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa in such a way that it makes particular people to take on roles that were not traditionally their as they try to fight it. It also puts some people in a situation where by they surrender some of their roles to those who can manage them properly especially if this concerns money.

Thirdly, education has also contributed to changes in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa. With increased education of females, the job market is now democratic. It welcomes all sexes, male or female. What decides now is not gender but qualifications. With education, as Narayan, et al (2000:112) writes “… women have opportunities for jobs than men now.” In most job adverts employers encourage women to apply as longer as they qualify.
Several females in Africa are now engaged in jobs like engineering. More than a few ladies put on pairs of trousers and do men’s work such as climbing of Radio and television masks to repair them. All this has been caused by education of women, who now see themselves as not different from men in terms of what they can offer, after all they are qualified. With education still, women are increasingly seeking equity and demanding for their rights which has subsequently caused major changes in gender division of labour. Kalangala’s district information Officer, Twaha Matovu[2] told me in an interview that about 30 percent of Kalangala district workers are females. He said most of these females got these jobs on merit because they had qualifications. How could these females acquire these jobs surely with out education qualifications? Education has revolutionarized everything.

Deaths have also contributed to changes in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa. With increased killer diseases in Africa, such as HIV/Aids, Malaria and Ebola, deaths of heads of families have been rampant. When death takes way the male head of a family who has been fulfilling the duty of breadwinner, a wife (widow) has no alternative but rather to taken on the roles of her deceased husband. This as Narayan et al (2000:114) elaborates is, “resulting in a new phenomenon of women becoming their families’ chief breadwinners.”
However, in incidences where women also later succumb to death, children now assume the roles of heads of their families, and they become breadwinners. Such a thing is happening in Rakai district and several areas in Africa. Traditionally, children and women are not supposed to be heads of families. Among the women and some youths I interviewed in Kalangala district during out tour there, no one told me she/he was working because of the death of her/his head of family however at least two women at Nakatiba Landing site, told me they have some friends who are working because their husbands have died.

The fifth factor contributing to changes in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa is concerned with coming up of the increased gender movements which emphasize especially on female empowerment. The last 40 years have seen several movements spring up meant mostly to end inequalities and discrimination based and gender differences.
Movements like Gender Equity Empowerment Framework, Gender and Development, Movement towards recognizing Woman’s roles in Development (WID) have all led to changes in gender division of labor in Africa with mostly females being brought up to limelight to compete with males in several positions . Such movements have helped to address gender gaps at various levels and subsequently led to increased access of females to education, access to information and control of resources and benefits.

This has subsequently led to a change in traditional division of labor with more females getting involved in activities originally meant for males.
At Nakatiba landing site in Kalangala district, a lady one Getrude Nabugela owns a
‘fish table’, or rather a place where fish is collected from after being brought from the lake. At this place, fish is cleaned and packed for sell in local and international markets.
In an interview with Nabugela who was dressed in a pair of trousers, speaking in the local language Luganda , she stressed with emphasis that “ there are no jobs meant for men alone, women are able to taken on any jobs as long as they are sensitized and shown how to do them”. This I attribute it to the fact that gender empowerment movements have helped to empower Nabugela to the extent that she sees herself as no different from men in terms of what to offer to society , she told me she employs 54 males at her ‘fish table’.

Lastly with globalization, or rather the shrinking of the world into one village with several interconnecting networks, there has been tremendous free flow of ideas from individuals to individuals, countries to countries and continent to continent.
This is causing several things including changes in the traditional Gender division of labor. With Globalization and its free flow of information, cultures in Africa and in countries belonging to ‘South’[3] , such as those that emphasize on traditional gender roles are quickly disappearing and those of the people in the ‘North’ are displacing them. Western culture imperialism is gradually and slowly taking roots displacing cultures of the local people. Indigenous traditions, cultures and norms are now seen as local , bad and sometimes inhumane.

This has for example caused women in Africa to copy the lifestyle of their counterparts in Western countries. An example here could be the ‘Single mothers’ phenomena where by some women no longer consider marriage important. This has led to such women to take on roles of males as a move intended to look after their families.
Furthermore African children, who traditionally, used to be under their parents as their helpers, with globalization they have now been poisoned by the western culture.
They tend to see themselves equal with their parents and some of them no longer want to submit to their parents. This indirectly means that the roles they used to perform in the society are slowly changing because if they see such roles as being oppressive, they have a right to refuse them. Such a thing was unheard of in the traditional African culture.
It is also important to note that globalization has also made trade and commerce easier and much rewarding. This has attracted several females to join this field as move intended to earn a living. With globalization nothing has been left un changed, right from the youngest member of the society to the oldest, all have experienced either the bad or good changes which globalization has inflicted onto their society. This surely has not spared the traditional gender division of labor in Africa.
Take an example of the spread of the culture of homosexuality in Africa. This has surely turned males into females and females into males as far as ‘bed activities[4]’ are concerned. Globalization is to blame here.

All in all, with increased advocacy for sustainable development, several factors have taken place and most of them have led to changes in the traditional gender division of labor, in Africa, and several other continents. However, means employed to achieve sustainable development have to observe and respect culture and norms of the masses if they are to succeed. This does not mean to leave some particular gender out of the development circles but rather engage them with respect to their culture.

References

Creedon, P.J. (1993). The challenges of re-visioning Gender Values. In P.J .Creedon (ed.) Women in Mass communication (2nd ed). (pp.-23). California : Sage Publications lnc.

In T. Skelton and T, Allen (ed.). Culture and Global Change (pp.1-10) New York: Routledge.

Interviews I had with some residents of Kalangala between 24-26 March 2006 during a study tour for Postgraduate Environmental Journalism and Communication students of Makerere University 2005/6.

Narayan , N. Chambers , R. Shan , M. K. Petesch , P. (2000) .Voices of the Poor Crying Out of Change. Washington: Oxford press.

Pieterse, J.N.(2002). Development Theory Deconstructions /Reconstructions.
Skelton T, and Allen T (2005).Culture and Global change an introduction. London: Sage Publications

Wikipedia encyclopedia at http://www.wikipedia.com/ accessed on 1st April 2006.
Wilkins, K .G. (2005). Out of focus: Gender visibilities in development. In O. Hemer and T. Tufte (ed). Media and Global Change Rethinking Communication for Development (PP.261-270) . Buenos Aires: Nordicon
[1] I use Kalangala district following a study tour I had there between 24th to 26th of March 2006.
[2] Twaha Matovu was our tour guide while in Kalangala district.
[3] South is used to identify undeveloped countries. Its opposite is North with refers to developed countries.
[4] In other words intercourse

2006-08-17T04:10:00.000-07:00

Assessing the role of international environmental law in
controlling climate change.

Mugira Fredrick

This essay focuses on the role of the international environmental law in controlling climate change worldwide. Most of the examples used in this essay are drawn from Uganda

According to Wikipedia encyclopedia[1], international environmental law can de defined as the, “body of International law that concerns the protection of global environment.”
This draws attention to the fact that international environmental law includes several international laws, which are put together aiming at protection of the environment.

This is in line with Birnie and Boyle (2003: 1) who note that international environmental law is, “a body of law more specifically aimed at protection of the environment.”
It is important to note that as Birnie and Boyle (2003:11) further write international environmental law is not alone in itself but rather it is, “simply a branch of general international law,” which has its foundation as World Bank (2004) notes, “in the 16th and 17th centuries law that was created to govern the diplomatic, commercial, military and other relations of the society of Christian states.”

The international environmental law development can be traced from what World Bank (2002) calls “two main phase,” which range from “1972-1992 which was the period of burgeoning international environmental consciousness surrounding and following the UN Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972, and from 1992, onwards,” through these years, several conventions and treaties have been signed by nations in a move intended to protest environment.

World Bank (2004) note that the development of international environmental law which it defines as “the body of the international law relevant to environmental issues,” comes as a result of, “globalization of environmental problems, and concerns, attributed to two crucially interrelated factors, ecological and economic interdependence.”
In other words , as the world becomes one global village, people or rather inhabitants are seeing environment as one common resource they share hence a need to protect it jointly.

As Steinway et al (2003) note such laws and requirements address issues ranging from natural environment, including air, water and land and further more how humans interact with these resources and ecological system.

International environmental law has several functions it plays as it endeavors to protect environment. It is important to note that as Birnie and Boyle ( 2002:7) note, the functions of, “international laws in protecting the environment is not fundamentally different from or any less varied than, domestic environmental law.” In other words the two branches of law seem to be playing similar roles since they all aim at protection of environment.

Among other functions, international environmental law, as Birnie and Boyle (2002:7) write, “facilitates and promotes cooperation between states, international organizations and non governmental organizations and constitutes the processes of international environmental governance.” This draws attention to the fact that international environmental law brings together countries which are signatories to such laws. They see themselves as members of one family and in the end this promotes cooperation.

It is important to note that as its first aim, international environmental law, has a function to protect misuse, over exploitation, degradation and destruction of environment. This is in turn helps to conserve the environment which is necessary for any sustainable development.

International environmental law further plays a function of regulating environmental problems. Ibid (2002:7) note that, “like national environmental law, much of international environmental law is concerned with regulating environmental problems, settling common international standards and objectives for prevention or mitigation of harm and providing a flexible rule making process.”

As Birnier and Boyle (2002:7) write, international environmental law, as any other international law, “provides mechanism and procedures for negotiating the necessary rules and standards, settling disputes, and supervising implementation, and compliance with treaties and customary rules.” In other words, it helps to set standards on which environmental conservation is founded. With it therefore, states challenge actions of other states in regard to environment abuse by referring to it.
States also defend their actions or policies by referring to it. In this, international environmental law therefore plays a role of settling disputes.

It helps in compensating those who suffer damage. By the virtue of the fact that international environmental law makes nations answerable for their international environmental crimes, those whose environment suffer damage caused by individuals or government in other countries can use the international environmental law to seek for redress and in the end could get compensated.

More still, as Birnie and Boyle (2002:8) state, international environmental law, helps to “harmonize national laws, either globally or regionally.” This draws attention to the fact that international environmental law leads a situation where by countries that subscribe to it have somehow similar laws towards protection of environment. This is as a result of nations replicating the provisions in the international environmental law.

Lastly the international environmental law also plays a function of monitoring and reporting on environment by nations, Birnie and Boyle (2002:205) note that, “most treaties require states to make periodic reports on matters affecting the treaty.” By doing this, governments monitor their environment and report what is happening to it accordingly.

There are several sources of international environmental however as Wikipedia encyclopedia notes, “there have been many legally binding international agreements concerning the protection of the environment but in this area of international law, soft law is more common than normal.” World Bank (2004) defines soft law as comprising of “non binding instruments that lay down guidelines for future action, or through which states commit themselves politically to meeting certain objectives.” In other words soft law bases on international diplomacy and customs and what is considered morally acceptable by the majority.

Birnie and Boyle (2002:10) give a summary of the source of international environmental law that, “much of international environmental law is the product of an essentially legislative process involving the interplay of international organizations , conferences, diplomacy, codification and progressive development and international courts and relatively subtle interplay of treaties , non binding declarations or resolutions and customary international law.”

According to article 38(1) of the statute of the international court of justice, sources of international law include international convections (treaties) general principles of law recognized in civilized nations, customary international law, judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists.

International conventions (treaties) come in to existence after international negotiations over matters of common concern. This results in agreement in form of text that usually reflects mutual advantages. The text is agreed upon and signed and after the wanted number of signatories reaches, the convention comes into force.

General principles of law recognized in civilized nations, include norms available and acceptable to the states to regulate their international relations.

International customary law is according to the statute of the international court of justice the, “general practice accepted as law” by nations. World Bank (2004) notes that, “it is something that states do because they regard themselves as legally obliged to do it.”
This draws attention to the fact that international customary law is established by the consistent compliancy by state over time.

Judicial decisions, as a source of international law originate from decisions made by international court of justice and other tribunals.
The writings and teachings of the most highly qualified publicist would include writings of professors and UN reports .

However Birnie and Boyle (2002;12 ) suggest other candidates for international environmental law to include “ General Assembly resolutions , declarations of principles adopted by the UN or by adhoc UN and other conferences, treaty provisions agreed by general consensus among the majority of state but not yet in force, and the proposals of the international law commission.”

There are 3 major conventions which are important in controlling climate change. These include United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Kyoto Protocol and United Nations Convention on Controlling Desertification. The provisions of these 3 conventions have helped much worldwide to combat activities that would have increased climate change.

Climate change Wikipedia encyclopedia refers to the “variation in the Earth's global climate or regional climates over time. It describes changes in the variability or average state of the atmosphere - or average weather - over time scales ranging from decades to millions of years.” Such changes sometimes are dangerous and cause disasters such El Nino and desertification while others are seen as helpful.

Below I discuss these 3 convections and some of their provisions that are playing important roles in controlling climate change.

According to UNFCCC (2003), evidence of human interference with climate first came up in 1979 at the World Climate Conference and as years went by countries developed much concern over environmental issues. In 1988 the United Nations General Assembly adopted resolution 43/53, which was proposed by the government of Malta calling for protection of global climate for present and future generations.

In the same year the United Nations Environment Program and World Meteorological Organization formed a new body called the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change which was aimed at studying scientifically the threat of climate change. In 1990, the first report of this panel confirmed the threat of climate change as being real.

The second World Climate Conference in Geneva in 1990 called for creation of a global treaty to combat climate change and the General Assembly passed resolution 45/212 launching negotiations on a convention on climate change to be concluded by an
Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC).

The representatives of INC adopted the United Nations Framework Convection on Climate Change on 9th May 1992 and was opened for signature at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. It later entered into force on 21st March 1994.

UNEP and UNFCCC (2002:18) identify the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change as, “the foundation of global efforts to combat global warning.”
The ultimate objective of the convention is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentration in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous human induced interference with the climate system.

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change plays several roles in the countries that have ratified, accepted approved or acceded to it.

The first and foremost in that UNFCCC provides for sustainability managing of carbon sink. it helps in bringing into existence forests and other ecosystems that help in absorbing green house gases from the atmosphere hence reducing it. Green house gases damage ozone layer which is responsible for regulating the amount of sunshine reaching the earth. A damaged ozone layer would let a lot of heat from sun reach earth hence causing increased heat on the earth which leads to global warming and subsequently climate change. However with carbon sink in place as UNFCCC calls for, such a situation might not happen since green house gases would in the atmosphere would be remove by forests and other ecosystems.

Secondly, UNFCCC provides for developing and transferring of environmentally friendly technologies especially from developed to low developed countries. This helps the low developed counties to increase their capacity to fight causes of climate change.
Such technology includes the appropriate technology that does not emit a lot of green house gases .

Thirdly, UNFCCC helps member countries to prepare to adapt to climate change. In other words it alerts them early enough and by the time climate change, happens, it doesn’t affect them as much as it would have been, if they no alerts were made. Examples here include the times when heavy rains or drought are going to happen and people are warned before such as to plant crops early enough.

It further promotes education, training and public awareness concerning climate change. This helps local people in the member countries to know the dangers of climate change, and what they should do to control it and subsequently if they out what they have been told into practice, climate change is fought or minimized.

More still, UNFCCC obliges its member countries to engage in climate research, observations of the global climate system and information exchange. This is turn helps member countries to keep informed about development s in climate change
Researchers in climate change in particular make them knowledgeable and armed with more facts of what causes and results of climate change and other related eventualities . With such knowledge, it is easy to plan for control measures of climate change.

Lastly NFCCC helps member countries to put in place mitigation measures to climate change. It is important to note that before severe climate change is to happen , such countries are in the know and when even it happens , countries affected are helped in over coming it say with aid inform of funds and other resources.

Kyoto protocol is also one of the convection aimed at controlling climate change. Kyoto protocol is what UNFCCC (2003:4) calls, “a substantial extension to the NFCCC that outlined legally binding commitments.” It was adopted in Kyoto Japan in December 1997.

It focuses on largely binding green house gases emission targets for countries especially for the developed countries . This is aimed at arresting and reversing the upward trend in green house gas emission.

In addition to the above role of controlling the emission of green house gases by mostly the developed countries, Kyoto protocol also plays several other roles in controlling climate change.

It promotes environmentally friendly technology transfer especially from developed nations to those still developing. Such technology helps the developing nations to effectively with much ease control climate change. These technologies also help the developing countries not to follow the same suit of developed countries which is now seen as not being environmentally friendly.

Secondly, Kyoto protocol promotes cooperation in science research and international climate observation networks, this helps in member countries to get information and mostly relevant information on climate change and what is happening to climate. This in turn equips nations, with information to use in controlling climate change.

Thirdly, Kyoto protocol provides for supporting education , training , public awareness and capacity building initiatives . All these help to equip the masses in member countries with skills necessary for controlling climate change.

It also helps nations to establish and put in practice, national mitigation and adaptation programmes all aimed at controlling climate change. Such programmes help the masses in member countries to do all they can to control climate change and also to find ways of how they can deal with the condition s brought about by climate change.

The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) is another convection aimed at controlling climate change through combating desertification. It was adopted in June 1994 and opened to signature from October 1994 to October 1995, it came into force on 26th of December 1996.

UNCCD plays several roles in combating climate change.
Firstly, it provides the country parties affected by desertification in Africa. Asia,
Latin America, Caribbean and Northern Mediterranean to prepare programs and put them in action all aimed at combating desertification. Such programmes included national strategies of planting trees.

The same countries are obliged to cooperate at the regional and sub regional levels in combating desertification. This in turn helps them to share information and skills on combating desertification through cooperation especially in collection, analysis and exchange of information concerning desertification. This also promotes an integrated approach in fighting desertification

Secondly , through the convention, developed country parties support affected countries by providing financial resources and facilitating access to appropriate technology .knowledge and know how. Financial support from developed countries help the affected countries to establish mitigation, measures to desertification.
Like wise, appropriate technology and knowledge helps the affected countries to effectively combat desertification. It is important to note that this convention helps Low Developed countries to improve access to relevant technologies and data.

The convention also provides for capacity building and awareness building, which equips the masses in member countries with information necessary for combating desertification. Local masses are made aware about desertification and its dangers.
However there are several limitations which hinder nations and in this particular case, Uganda in applying these 3 international conventions and others in general.

Some of these limitations include lack of enough funds to implement all programs called for by these conventions such as those aiming at reducing transport sector emissions and enhancing energy efficiency. This is because Uganda is a poor country. Is sometimes sees such programs as not being a priority but rather fighting poverty comes first.

Secondly, Uganda faces lack of political will to implement such conventions. Politicians aim at getting votes and they do not care what this cost. For example, they fear stopping people from encroaching on forests for the fear of loosing votes from them.
In addition political and civil servants changed to put in place programmes called for by these conventions are not committed.

Thirdly corruption is frustrating even the little efforts put in place to combat climate change. The little funds extended to Uganda by developed nations to help put in place programmes called for by the convention end in individual pockets. A few corrupt officials make such programmes fail.

More still, there is also lack of enough awareness about these conventions. Some local masses do not even know anything about these conventions leave alone some of their provisions. This leaves these conventions not put in practical.
A few Environmentalists who know about them do not have enough capacity to make others aware about them.

More still the issue of instability is also a great limitation to applying these conventions. Funds from the budget that would have gone to funding these conventions and their programs go to funding military operations in north where there are rebels of Lords’ Resistance Army.
In addition programmes called for, such as planting of trees can not take place in insecure places in northern Uganda .

There are also not so many specialists in this field in Uganda and even those who are qualified want to stay in urban areas and not going in rural areas to sensitize and educate the rural masses who are the majority.

In addition, the international environmental law itself is not strict enough to punish the offenders severely, so the governments sometimes doesn’t take its provisions seriously. This sometimes leads the government to undermine implementation of these conventions.

Lastly due to high levels of illiteracy in the country, some illiterate masses sometimes fail to implement this convention due to ignorance.

This essay has observed that international environmental law plays several significant roles in controlling climate change. This therefore calls on countries world wide to take active responsibility of implementing what the law call for, in a move intended to control climate change which is seen as a great danger to the future generation.

References.

Birnie, P.W and Boyle, A.E (2002) International law and the environment (2nd ed.) New York: Oxford University Press

Kubasek, N.K and Silverman, G.S (2005) Environmental Law (5th ed.) New jersey Pearson Prentice hall

Steinway, D.M, Drye, K and Warren (2003) Fundamentals of environmental law . In T.F.P Sullivan (ed.) Environmental law handbook (17th ed.) USA: Government institute.

UNCCD (2000) Potential Benefits form becoming a party to the convention(English only) Retrieved April 18, 2006 from http://www.unccd.int/convention/ratif/benefit.php

UNEP and UNFCCC (2002) Climate change Information kit. Geneva Switzerland.

UNFCCC (2003) Caring for climate: A guide to the Climate Change Convention and the Kyoto Protocol. Bonn. Germany

Wikipedia encyclopedia. International environment Law. Retrieved April 18, 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/international_environmental
World Bank (2004) Climate Change: the UNFCCC and the Kyoto protocol. Retrieved April 18, 2006 from http://www.worldbank.org/legal/lengen/lengen-climate.html
[1] Wikipedia Encyclopedia is an online encyclopedia

2006-06-20T08:18:00.000-07:00

ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS

Evaluation of the viability of any 3 sources of energy given in the Uganda’s energy policy.

By MUGIRA FREDRICK

It is evident that the fortunes of the world's human population, for better or for worse, are inextricably interrelated with the use that is made of energy resources.
-M. King Hubbert, Resources and Man, 1969

Energy policy is a plan of action for undertaking issues related to energy supply, demand, development of energy related industry and trade and consequences of energy activities (Merriam Webster Dictionary, Wikipedia Encyclopaedia ). This draws attention to the fact that energy policy looks at various sources of energy in a given country and how they can be effectively utilized in a sustainable and environmentally friendly way to benefit the peoples’ demand for energy.

This essay concentrates on the energy policy for Uganda and further evaluates the viability of 3 energy sources. The energy sources are Hydroelectric, Solar and biomass energy .

The Energy policy for Uganda was formulated in September 2003 with its goal focussing on meeting energy needs of Ugandans for social and economic development in an environmentally sustainable manner (The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002).
“In formulation of this policy, we have considered the main characteristics of the energy sector in Uganda and its linkages with the rest of the economy and the international scene” ( Syda N. M Bbumba ).

In its offset, the energy policy for Uganda urges the case in favour of an energy policy for the country. It goes ahead to explore the energy sector in Uganda and its composition. It reveals the energy sector in Uganda as comprising of sub sectors of power, petroleum, new and renewable sources of energy and atomic energy.
The policy further dwells on energy consumption and gives the major sectors for energy consumption in the country as transport, industry and commerce, household and institutions and Agriculture.

Part 2 of the policy concentrates on what is called, “key Issues in the energy sector”. These include issues that affect the supply and demand of energy in the country. The policy goes ahead to tackle energy conservation in the country, the gaol and objectives of the policy and regulation principles for the sector.
Part 4 of the policy concentrates on the demand and supply strategies with in the energy sector while part 5 looks at the short and medium term policy priority actions including investments in the sector between 2000 to 2012 .

The Energy Policy for Uganda shows the sources and potential sources of energy in the country as being six in number. These include hydroelectric power which is generated from dams such as those along river Nile and in Kilembe mines in Kasese district.

The other sources of energy include petroleum products all of which are currently imported into the country. Petroleum exploration is also currently going on at Lake Albert which could help in production of petroleum products.
Biomass energy which includes mostly firewood, charcoal and crop residues is also talked about in the policy and is shown as constituting 90 percent of the total energy consumption in the country
Solar is also another source of energy shown in the Policy, others include wind, geothermal energy and atomic energy.

From the above 6 sources and potential sources of energy in Uganda, I feel the three sources I give below are the most viable.

HYDROELECTRIC POWER
This is the power generated from dams. In Uganda, such dams are along river Nile, while another is situated in Kasese district. Dams along river Nile generate 300 megawatts while the other dam in Kasese Cobalt Mines produces 17 megawatts to make a total of 317 megawatts as hydroelectric power generated in Uganda (The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002, African Economic Outlook 2003/2004).

Hydroelectric Power is viable in Uganda because it is inexhaustible or rather renewable. As long as there is water in rivers and lakes, which is provided freely by nature through the hitting of the seas and other water bodies by the sun which causes evaporation resulting into rains, this energy can be generated and keep on being supplied to the masses. In times of the decrease in water levels in the rivers and lakes, the generation of power may decrease but it is guaranteed of continuity. Certainly if rains increase, the generation of power can go back to the normal rate

Secondly, there are no wastes produced during the generation of this power. If they were there , such wastes could pollute the environment, a thing that leads to several problems including those which affect peoples’ health causing them to spend a lot of money in solving such problems. Unlike in fossil fuels where for example coal is burnt to produce electricity, in hydroelectric power, water just runs the turbines which in the end produce electricity to be supplied to people with no residues such as dangerous gases like carbon dioxide which causes global warming among other problems. Wastes that could destroy environment are also not there.

Thirdly, hydroelectric power stations produce high amounts of power unlike other sources such as geothermal. Uganda's hydroelectric power potential is estimated at 2000 megawatts (The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002).This subsequently makes it viable to benefit a lot of people even though they may be situated miles and miles from the dams. With the ever growing population of Uganda, such a source of power which supplies electricity in big amounts would be the one to rely on.

Fourthly, it is cheap on the side of customers or users. Once this power has been installed in your house or factory, you just keep paying bills at the end of the month. There is no need to buy or recharge the batteries. Likewise, once the dam is built, the energy is virtually free. Water keeps on running the turbines which produce the electricity. There is no need of fuel as it is done in the fossil fuel productions to run the turbines.

More still, dams can serve other uses apart from generation of electricity. Such purposes would include control of river flooding since water that would have been flooding is collected towards the dam to run the turbines. Another purpose is provision of water for irrigation. Water gathered at the dam can always be used for the purposes of irrigation in areas near the dam. Such dams can also work as tourist attractions hence bring into the country foreign exchange.

Unlike for example in solar type of power which can not be produced at night and times when there is no sunshine, hydroelectric power generation is constant. It can be produced anytime of the day as long as water is running. This makes it reliable and ideal for industries and hospitals which need power all day round.

When it comes to employment, hydroelectric power gives thousands of people jobs. The engineers, the sales executives, the administrators and those that read meters, all benefit from this source of energy through getting jobs. At least 1351 people were employed in the hydroelectric sector in Uganda during 2001 (www.afrepren.org/datahandbook2/pdfs/elec.pdf). This makes it ideal in helping people employed in this sector to earn a living and fight poverty.

On the other hand, generation of hydroelectric power is expensive especially in construction of a dam. This has partly been the reason why Uganda which is endowed with several sites on rivers where it can construct dams has not done so. An example here is Karuma falls on River Nile and Kikagate falls on river Kagera which are capable of producing electricity but the government has no enough funds to construct dams there. It is costly for the government to construct dams and that is why Uganda has been turning to donors to help it in construction of Bujagali dam on river Nile which has also taken long to take off.

Secondly, construction of a dam in a particular area disrupts surrounding ecosystems. Building of a dam in an area may cause flooding in that particular area which destroys or affects plants and animals that live in that particular area. This similar affects aquatic life in those rivers because the normal flow of water is altered and this may be harmfully.

More still, construction of a dam in a particular area may lead to relocation of people that were living there, interference with their culture and traditions like it is happening with the Basoga people who say construction of Bujagali dam will interfere with their gods at the falls. When people are relocated, the government spends a lot of money in this exercise because it involves compensation. All this makes this a risky and expensive venture to undertake.

Dams affect the quality of water in a lake or river where they are situated. An example is Kiira Dam on River Nile which has been criticized for decreasing the levels of water of Lake Victoria. Dams cause an increase in the flow of water from a lake, which means that more water would be lost from the lake and if there are no enough rains to replace this water being lost, there could be a problem of lack of enough water in a river to run the turbines which subsequently leads to production of little power.

Monthly payments of electricity bills make this power source expensive for an ordinary citizen who has no enough earnings. No wonder this particular source of power has been concentrated in urban areas where at least there are rich people who can afford to pay for it. In the rural areas: it is not there, people there can not afford to pay monthly bills.

Lastly, hydroelectric power relies on water for its production, so in situations of droughts which lead to decrease in water levels, turbines may fail to run. This means that little or no electricity would be produced. Such a scenario is currently happening in Uganda and the rest of East African countries where by the current dry conditions in the area have led to a decrease in water levels of lake Victoria and several other lakes in the regions which are the main suppliers of water to rivers on which dams supplying electricity in the three countries are situated. This has led to loadshedding every after a day. This is dangerous to business communities which use power for their transactions.

All in all, there is nothing that has advantages without disadvantages. Though hydroelectric power has some disadvantages, I feel it remains viable for the country because the alternatives are worse.

SOLAR ENERGY
This is the energy generated from the Sun. Uganda, which is situated along the equator has a solar radiation of about 4-5 KWH/m2/day which favors solar technology application (The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002, African Economic Outlook 2003/2004). This makes this power source viable.

Solar energy is viable for Ugandans because of several reasons which include among others the availability of financial incentives in form of loans from the central government through village banks to reduce on the costs of accessing this energy in homes. Government currently passes loans through microfinance institutions and the money is meant to help local people to buy solar equipment for their homes, shops and other businesses (The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002). This means that, with support form the central government, this source of energy can easily be accessed by the local people without having to pay much which in real sense they do not have.

Secondly solar energy is renewable. It can not be overexploited and get exhausted. The sun keeps on shinning which is just enough to be tapped and to generate power.
Thirdly, solar energy can be used in remote areas where hydroelectric power and other sources of energy such as geothermal can not be used (The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002:21). Such places are in for example the mountainous areas, remote areas, like those close to the Uganda-Sudan boarder. This means that people who live in such areas would not be left out of the plans to access power for economic development.

Solar energy source needs no fuel to keep it running like in the case of the energy produced from fossils which need to be burnt to produce electricity. With solar you just buy solar panels and connect them to start getting power. There is no need of buying fuel to produce power like in the case of a generator. This also makes this energy source viable in that it does not pollute air as a result of burning fuel.

More still, solar power is generated where it is needed. This means that there would be no costs needed to extend this power from say a dam as in the case of hydroelectric power to homesteads or industries. It operates independently and a homestead is the sole unit that utilizes it with no strings attached. This makes its management easy. In addition to this, there are no monthly bills to be paid. One just installs it and that is the end. This makes it cheaper.

Furthermore, since solar energy can be installed in anyplace, irrespective of terrain, remoteness and accessibility, this makes it ideal for supporting rural development and wealth creation there. Unlike hydroelectric power, solar energy does not concentrate in urban areas and along the roads. This means that if installed in rural areas, solar energy can support projects there intended to generate income for the local people as hydroelectric power is doing in urban centres. This subsequently fuels rural economics.

By the virtue of the fact that solar energy does not cause pollution including emission of dangerous gases, it does cause global warming. This makes it ideal in such that it is environmentally friendly and causes little or no harm to the surrounding environment and the environment beyond.

In case of the need for more power, one can just add solar panels and increase the production of energy. This is contrary to other sources such as hydroelectric power where there is need to construct another dam if more power is to be generated. This is currently happening in Uganda where by the demand for hydroelectric power in the country is high and the only need to satisfy it , has been seen as constructing new dams on River Nile such as Bujagali but not expanding the current dams on this river. This therefore, justifies the reason why solar energy is viable for Uganda in that, it is not costly to expand it.

Solar panels operate silently. They have no moving parts like in the case of a dam or wind farm. This makes solar environmentally friendly with no noise pollution which could cause health problems to people.

It is ideal for running satellites such as those of Television, Telephone and weather forecast plus internet because it can be installed onto satellite dishes that are in the air rotating around the globe. With increased globalisation, Uganda needs to invest much in communication technology so as to cope up with the rest of other nations. This means that without solar power, Uganda would be doing badly in this field of communication and subsequently it would lag behind in development.
On the other hand, solar energy needs sunlight to operate and in cases where there is little or no sunshine say at night, this would make it unreliable.
It is also expensive to install solar. One needs over a million to buy solar equipment and pay for installations. This is surely expensive for an average rural person in Uganda.

It is also not produced in large amounts. In fact people in rural areas resort to using it for lighting and playing radios and cassettes because it is not in high amounts like hydroelectric power. Several solar panels are needed to generate a decent amount of power. This is expensive for the people and the government also.
Lastly, it may be dangerous for the human health if installed improperly. If the sun rays which solar panels attract accidentally leak to humans, this may cause several diseases including skin cancer, a thing that is deadly leave alone being costly in searching for the cure which is not there.
All in all, though it has some disadvantages, its advantages outweigh its disadvantages which make it ideal for use especially in rural areas where masses have no access to alternative sources of power.

BIOMASS ENERGY
Biomass energy in Uganda includes energy produces from "firewood, charcoal, and crop residues".(The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002, African Economic Outlook 2003/2004). The other energy produced under biomass energy which is not common in Uganda is that from sugar canes, municipal wastes, livestock and human wastes among others. The common energy in Uganda under biomass comes from firewood, charcoal, and crop residues which,“constitute over 90 percent of total energy consumption in the country . It provides almost all the energy used to meet basic needs of cooking and water heating in rural and most urban households, institutions and commercial buildings"(The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002, 2002:19).

Biomass energy is viable for Uganda because it is cheap. Fire woods and crop residues, these are provided freely by nature. People in rural areas just go to forests or gardens and collect firewood with no fee paid. Likewise charcoal is cheap. A charcoal sack in most towns in Uganda now goes for about 10.000 shillings. Such a sack of charcoal can last for about a week in an average family of 4 members.
Secondly, this source of energy is renewable. Trees, scrubs among others keep on growing naturally while others are planted by man. This makes them inexhaustible and hence accessible all year round. Likewise for the human and livestock wastes, these would ever be there as along as human beings live and in most cases they are for free.

Trading in biomass energy is ideal in providing employment to rural uneducated people. Charcoal trade in Uganda, “employs 20000 people and generates Ushs 36 billion per year in rural incomes" (The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002:20). This makes biomass viable for it does not only provide energy but also employment for especially rural masses.

More still, in case of energy from human and livestock wastes plus municipal wastes and sugar cane leftovers (bagasse), this helps to recycle and put to use materials that would have been wasted. In other words Biomass source of energy helps to use resources that would have been a nuisance to the community.
On the other hand , this particular source of energy is dangerous to the environment. It has led to tremendous cutting of trees to make charcoal and firewood. This is leading to deforestation. Subsequently deforestation is leading to several other problems such as global warming, drought, unpredictable weather patterns and reduction of water levels in lakes and rivers such as Lake Victoria and River Nile.

In addition , this biomass source of energy leads to production of harmful gases such as carbon dioxide which leads to destruction of ozone layer, a thing that causes a lot of sun rays to penetrate through the ozone layer and reach the earth. This subsequently leads to global warming.
More still, it is hard to collect enough and sufficient quantities of wastes say the livestock wastes to produce power. This makes this particular source of energy unreliable because at one time if such wastes are in scarcity, the power also would be in scarcity.

In addition, the process of producing power in this particular energy source, especially that from sugar canes and human and livestock wastes is costly. The process of burning solid wastes to provide heat used to make steam for running the turbines before power is generated surely is a long and costly process for government leave alone a local person. No wonder, government has been having plans to invest in this energy, but it has taken long to have it developed.
In conclusion, by the virtue of the fact that the 3 sources of energy given above are the ones used common in the country, it makes them viable. If they had not been viable, other means would have been more prominent than them.

NOTE
A better version of this text with graphics and proper references can be got free of charge from the author send email to- mugifred@yahoo.com

REFERENCES:
African Economic Outlook. (2003/2004), African Development Bank.
The Energy Policy for Uganda. (2002), Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development, Kampala.

Useful Websites.
htt://eereweb.eedoe.gov.
http://home.clara.net
http://library.thinkquest.org
http://www.stthomas.edu/recycle/energy.htm
www.afrepren.org/datahandbook2/pdfs/elec.pdf
www.energyandminerals.go.ug/energypolicy.pdf
www.wikipedia.org

2006-04-06T04:44:00.000-07:00

FLIGHT H5N1: NEXT STOPOVER EASTERN AFRICA?

Mugira Fredrick

The flight started in Southeast Asia in 2003. It has since then had several stopovers.

From Asia to Europe and more recently in Africa’s Nigeria, Niger, Cameroon and Egypt. Aboard the flight piloted by birds is none other than the lethal H5N1 strain of bird flu.
Its next stopover? No one knows. Most likely Eastern Africa.

Bird flu, also known as Avian influenza, is a type of influenza virus that affects mostly birds and irregularly pigs.
"The virus can pass from bird to bird when it is inhaled and from contact with infected droppings. Like birds, human beings acquire bird flu through inhaling the virus,” says Mwebesa Tom, a lecturer in the Public Health Institute at Makerere University,

"The virus, having been inhaled, it eats cells in the body and instead of the cells producing other normal cells, it produces the virus,” says Mwebesa.
Wildlife scientists have cautioned that Eastern Africa countries are directly threatened by bird flu. They say since the region, was a major route for millions of migrant wild birds from Eurasia every year, the virus can have an easy access into it.
The farmers in the region will soon have it rough if their governments do not handle the threat of bird flu pandemic with great care.

Little has been done in this region, where poultry and humans tend to live in close proximity, to sensitize farmers and other masses about the pandemic.
At least the 10 interviewed people who keep domestic birds in Mbarara stressed that they had not been educated about Bird flu.

“We only hear bird flu on radio,” said John Tiwangye one of them while peaking in Kinyankole.
With over 190 human cases of bird flu detected worldwide and a bout 110 deaths as a result , if nothing is done to sanitize farmers in Eastern Africa , the number of deaths could shoot up greatly.
“It is important that these local people are told about the symptoms of the disease so that they can keep on guard," says Jeconeous Musingwire,the Southwestern Focal Person for the Agency that oversees environment in Uganda- NEMA.

The US based Center for Disease control (CDC) and the World Health Organization (WHO) have identified a major symptom of bird flu in birds as sudden deaths in big numbers. In human beings, the two organizations say some of the symptoms include severe illness characterized by fever, sore throat, cough, pneumonia and rapid death.

Like Kenya, Ugandan government has just acquired a machine to diagnose and detect bird flu. However with out public awareness about the disease, such machines are not enough.
Kenya’s Medical Service Director, James Nyikal and Uganda’s Health Commissioner for communicable diseases, Dr Sam Okware have on several occasions insisted that their countries are prepared to deal with this pandemic. However, farmers in these regions are far from being prepared. They are ignorant about the virus.

The farmers’ ignorance was displayed recently in Kiruhura district in Uganda when local people there woke up one morning last month to find dozens of cattle eaglets dead in their area. Their carcasses lay in a stream and bushes nearby. It took about a week for local people to report this to authorities.
“If bird flu had been the cause of deaths of these birds, several people there would have acquired it because most of them had already got in contact with the carcasses,” Musingwire says.

Farming and health experts from some African countries , donor organizations and top UN officials last month met in Gabon to lay strategies on how to respond to bird flu. However not much that was discussed in this meeting has been released to benefit the local people.
“We must do everything to contain the virus and stop it turning into a pandemic over the next few months,” the UNDP’s representative in Gabon, Bintou Djibou, told a news conference before the meeting.

UN health officials have warned that if bird flu turns into a pandemic, it could kill between 5 to 150 million people worldwide. Farmers in Eastern Africa are already nervous about this.
But what should the average, nervous Eastern Africa farmer, worried bout bird flu do?
World Health Organization says people should not touch birds that have died under unknown circumstances and should not eat uncooked or undercooked poultry or poultry products.
WHO also warns people against sharing houses with poultry and also eating any bird that has died under suspicious circumstances.

In case of any out break, WHO says there is need to quarantine the suspected birds with in a radius of 30 kilometers, stamp out all domestic birds in a radius of 5 kilometers from the infected farm or homestead and disinfection of the affected farms or homesteads.
With the pilot (birds) flying the plane in any directions, no one is safe. The stopover is there today, tomorrow it may be here. This calls on the governments in the Eastern Africa region, civil organization, politicians and local people to come together and see bird flu as a great danger that may cause catastrophe in the region if nothing is done now to prevent it.

ENDS